The Advent of Sufism and Spread of Islam and Arabic Language

Ahmed I. Osman

There is no authentic documentation to show exactly when and how Sufism was first introduced in the Sudan . Traditions suggest that Sharif Hamad Abu Dunnana first introduced it. He was the son-in-law of the Moroccan saint al-Juzuli (d. 870/1465 A.D.) founder of Juzuliyyah Brotherhood, a branch of the Shadhiliyyah Brotherhood. Abu Dunnana upon his arrival established the Shadhiliyyah Brotherhood in the Sudan . Abu Dunnana traveled with his son al-Sayyid ibn al-Hasan al-Baiyti and settled at Saqadi Gharb in the Berber district in 849 A.H./1445 A.D. There, he initiated many followers into the path of the Shadhiliyyah tariqa; in their turn, these disciples carried the Shadhiliyyah Brotherhood teaching to the rest of the country. But the largest and most influential Sufi sect in the Sudan is the Qadiriyyah Brotherhood. Wad Daif Allah states that the Qadiriyyah was introduced into the Funj land by Taj al-Din al-Buhari who came from Baghdad through al-Hijaz in 980 A.H./1577 A.D. and settled at Wadi Shacir in the Gazira region. Al-Buhari initiated many followers into the path of the tariqa, including the famous Sudanese saints Muhammad al-Hamim Bin cAbdul-Sadiq and Ban'naqa ad-Darir. Through these followers and aspirants, the Qadiriyyah Brotherhood flourished and spread across the Sudan , developing many branches, which became independent.

Another Sufi order with a distinct Sudanese character is the Sammaniyyah Brotherhood. The Sudanese saint, al-Shaikh Ahmad al-Tayyib al-Bashir al-Jumuci (1793-1853), introduced this Sufi order into the Sudan . Al-Shaikh al-Jumuci, while studying at Madina in Hijaz, was initiated into the Sammaniyyah Brotherhood by its founder al-Shaikh Muhammad cAbdul-karim al-Sammani.

Additionally, many other Brotherhoods were developed and covered most of the Sudan . These Brotherhoods includes: the Tijaniyyah, the Majdhubiyyah, the Ahmadiyyah, the Idrisiyyah, the Rashidiyyah, the Ismaciliyyah, and the Hindiyyah. During their development and diffusion, these Sufi orders erected Islamic centers for learning and the dissemination of their gospels in most of Sudanese villages and towns. Each tariqa established its mosque, zawiyah (lodge), and khalwah. The mosque was for prayers, the zawiyah for their gatherings and the performance of their rites, and the khalwah for the youngsters to learn the Islamic teachings.

The leaders of these Brotherhoods, like other orthodox religious leaders, attained positions of prominence, prestige and power within the Funj kingdom. J. Spaulding states:

A fakih [religious leader] who had been awarded land, followers, administrative authority and the rights to travel, found new communities, conducts markets, and recruits or purchases new dependents, all of whom would pay taxes to him instead of the government until the End of Time, was indeed of in a position to build up an enclave structured according to new principles.

 

With such powers, not to mention the fuqarah (religious leader or saint; sing. faqir or faqih) who were appointed viziers, members of royal court, or tax collectors, the fuqarah had a strong hand in the kingdom's affairs and could more easily and freely spread Islam and Arabic language, and their respective Sufi religious philosophy in Sudan.

One would expect that the dissemination of Arabic language in the country went hand in hand with the spread of Islamic teachings. Nevertheless, we find that in some areas of the Sudan the Arabic language is still entirely lacking. These areas include the northern part of Sudan ; where the Nubian languages still prevail, and the eastern part; where the Bija language is dominant. This fact supports the notion that Arabic was the language of the elite in the Sinnar kingdom. It was the means of communication only among the religious people at that time. When James Bruce visited that region in 1772, Arabic was said to be the language of the upper class in the Funj kingdom. Meanwhile, the dominant languages of the subjects and their Funj rulers were probably various Hamaj-Nubian languages. It is Islam rather than Arabic, which has exerted the effective influence on the Sudanese culture. Trimingham reaching the same conclusion, indicates: "It is above all that cultural system, Islam, which, after the environment, has most influenced the psychology of the people and fused their religious and social ideas into a unity of outlook which excites our wonder and admiration."

 

The Emergence of Oral Religious Poetry

The development of the Arabic language in the Sudan has not yet been thoroughly investigated. But without a doubt its simulation into Sudanese culture significantly increased as a result of its intermarriage with the prevailing local languages. In spite of its relatively slow pace in penetrating the hinterlands, Arabic was the vehicle by which the forms of Arabic literature entered the Sudan . One of these literary forms was religious poetry. Early Sudanese poets imitated Arabic poetic forms, but in a faulty way.

Consequently, an oral religious form of poetry was born and developed in the Sudanese oral literature. The first oral poetic themes to appear in the Sudanese poetic endeavors are panegyric and threnody. Izz al-Din Al-Amin, a Sudanese literary critic, and states that panegyric and threnody were the main subjects in which early Sudanese poets composed their poetry. Poets either eulogized or mourned their religious leaders or kings.

In the ream of religious oral poetry, the prominent form was panegyric poetry. This includes two main sub-forms: al-madih an-nabawi (religious poetry in praise of Prophet Muhammad) and al-qasid (religious oral poetry in praise of the saints). The question as to which of the two sub-forms of praise poetry came first into being is subject to controversy. Sudanese scholars who studied the genre of religious oral poetry in the Sudan espoused divergent viewpoints. cAbd Allah al-Bashir, a Sudanese authority on the subject of religious oral poetry, advocates the idea that al-madih an-nabawi must have preceded al-qasid, since the former sub-form is less controversial and was enjoying communal currency. By contrast, orthodox religious leaders frowned upon praising religious leaders. Others like cAbd al-Magid cAdin and Jacfar Bakhit Osman suggest that al-madih an-nabawi form developed from al-qasid form of religious poetry. They argue that it is the end product of yet another earlier poetic form labelled as-sayhah or al-kirrir. As-sayhah or al-kirrir, which literally means crying for succor or help, was an extinct poetic form of praise poetry for the religious leaders. It was performed in a loud voice. However, it is impossible to confirm which form of oral poetry emerged firstly since both forms were, at that time, well established in the surrounding Arab countries.

It is unfortunate that none of the early madih nabawi poetry seems to have survived in a documented manner. Yet Wad Daif Allah identifies several early poets who composed poetry in praise of Prophet Muhammad. These include: Ismacil Sahib ar-Rababah (Ishm'il with a rebec), the son of al-Shaikh Maki ad-Daqlash, who composed poems in praise of the Prophet and a commentary on his own poetry. Isma'cil says:

I had seen in my night, in my dreams,

The best of mankind (Prophet Muhammad) joyfully laughing.

Other poets who Wad Daif Allah identifies include: cAli Walad ash-Shafici, cAbd an-Nur ibn Abyad, and Madawi Bin Madani. All of them were notable religious leaders from the central parts of the Sudan . According to him, ibn Madani wrote poems and verses in praise of Prophet Muhammad that delighted men's souls.

The earliest preserved and documented madih nabawi poetry is a poem composed by an-Naqar ash-Shacir, a member of the Jacaliyyin-Bad'rab community. He is considered to be the first known poet to compose madih al-qasam (oath-praise poems), a form of al-madih an-nabawi poetry where the name of God is mentioned at the beginning of the second hemistich (second half-line) of each individual line of the poem. This form of poetry is the first form of Sudanese complete religious poems composed in praise of the Prophet. After an-Naqar, the genre of religious oral poetry started to flourish; many poets appeared in the forefront of Sudanese literary endeavors. In his study of madih poetry in the Sudan , Qurashi M. Hasan mentions poets like Qadurah, Ahmad Wad Tamim, Ahmad ad-Duquni, Muhammad Abu Kasawi, Ahmad Abu Kasawi, cAbdulkadir Abu Kasawi, Haj al-cAqib, Salih al-Amin, and Haj al-Mahi. These poets were active during the period of the Turkish rule in the Sudan .

Turkish authorities in the Sudan (1821-1885), in spite of their support for Sufism and Sufi movements in Turkey and other Arab regions under their control, assumed a negative stance towards oral religious poetry in the Sudan and in particular al-madih an-nabawi poetry. Haj al-Mahi, the famous Shauqiyyah poet, complaining about the Turkish authorities, says:

Oh brothers! An expression had reached us,

The stories which are circulating in the homes.

Listen and see, oh audience!

They (Turkish rulers) said don't praise the Chosen [Prophet Muhammad].

 

These aforementioned poets are considered the builders of the infrastructure of religious oral poetry in the Sudan . A close examination of their social rank reveals that they belonged to different Sufi Brotherhoods. Some of these poets were illiterate and some had but little knowledge of Islamic teaching; yet all of them received Islamic knowledge through the Sufi circles of their times. These Sufis brought numerous books from different parts of the Islamic World to the Sudan , particularly from Egypt , Hijaz, and the Maghrib. All Sufi books available in the aforementioned regions found their way into the Sudan years ago. Their teaching which was discussed earlier, was orally transmitted through their circles to their aspirants and followers

 

Impacts of Dala'il al-khayrat and Mawalid Literature

Besides ar-risalah and mukhtasar Khalil books, the other book, which assisted Sudanese poets in composing, their religious poetry was the book of dala'il al-khayrat by al-Juzuli, a Maghrib native and the famous grand saint of al-Juzuliyyah Brotherhood. Al-Juzuli's son-in-law, Sharif Hamad Abu Dunnana, introduced it into the Sudan . Dala'il al-khayrat is a book of prayers and praise of Prophet Muhammad. It was widely read in the Sudan during the Funj kingdom. Wad Daif Allah mentioned that many Sudanese religious leaders continuously read and used this book. He stated that the religious leader Hamad ibn Majdhub often read the dala'il, and also that Daif Allah ibn al-Fakih Muhammad Daif Allah used to study it when he finished teaching his pupils. Other religious leaders who used to read it include: cAbdulwahab Walad Abu Qarni, who was described by Wad Daif Allah as an obedient servant to God, and Nur ad-Din Walad Ab-Qujah.

The dala'il achieved great influence on the Sudanese religious life. It is reported that the Sudanese were known to form meetings and councils which were called "al-Juzuliyyah Councils" and in these councils the dala'il was recited and listened to. In the area of poetic expression dala'il al-khayrat seems to have served as a repertoire and reference work. Most poets patterned their own composition after the models of the Prophet it propagates; it also portrayed images and gave a historiography of Islam and the Prophet. The circulation of the dala'il is unlimited. Today one can acquire it from different bookstores and book peddlers on the streets' corners of the major Sudanese cities and towns.

In addition to dala'il al-khayrat's influence, the Sufis introduced many mawalid (sig. maulid; books on Prophet Muhammad's hagiography), into the Sudan . These are panegyric poetry or rhymed prose based on the legendary life of Prophet Muhammad. Until today, the Sudanese Muslims recite, highly appreciate and venerate them. One noted maulid is that written by Jacfar Bin Hasan al-Barzanji. The Qadiriyyah and the Sammaniyyah Brotherhoods recite it. It is also famous in both West and East Africa . Each Sufi organization adopts a certain well-known maulid book or its grand saint might write one for his followers to recite during their celebrations. For example: Al-Daibi's and al-cAzbi's maulids are recited by the Yemenites Brotherhood, while Muhammad ibn al-Mukhtar al-Shinqiti's maulid is recited by the Tijaniyyah tariqa. The Mirghaniyyah tariqa depends on Muhammad Uthman al-Mirghani's maulid and the Ismaciliyyah Brotherhood uses Ismacil al-Wali's maulid in their maulid celebration.

These maulids, also, enhanced the Islamic knowledge among the people. The illiterate poets found in it their imagery concerning the characteristics and qualities of the Prophet and their eulogized saints. Maulid celebrations and madih performce are public occasions that punctuate the cultural life of the Muslim Sudanese. In almost all the cities and big towns of the Sudan , Sufi Brotherhoods celebrate the birthday of Prophet Muhammad where they perform madih oral poetry and recite the mualid texts. Celebrations start at the beginning of the Arabic month of Rabicv al-awal until the birthday of Prophet Muhammad on the twelfth day of that month.

External Sources

In addition to the above-mentioned sources, much religious oral poetry also find their way into Sudan . Where Arabic language was promoted so was the case for religious oral poetry. The religious poetry of al-Busairi, the famous Egyptian poet, and cAbdulrahim al-Burci of Yemen also influenced religious poetry in the Sudan . Themes and imagery introduced by al-Busairi have had a far-reaching effect on Sudanese poets. The only differences that can be readily discerned between al-Busairi's themes and those of the Sudanese poets are the melody and rhythm, which accompany the Sudanese religious poetry. The Sudanese lean towards the use of drums and rhythm in their performances of religious poetry. These melodies and rhythms are mostly African in their nature. They are accompanied by dance. The themes the Sudanese poets incorporate in their poetry include history of the life of the Prophet before and after his prophecy and mentioning of his lofty qualities, and applying the same themes to their saints. The love of the Supreme Being, supplication, and litanies are the other themes highlighted in Sudanese religious poetry. The Sudanese adorn, like many other Muslim societies, venerate, and highly regard Al-Busairi's Burda. In a footnote, Trimingham confirming the importance of al-Burda says: "The Burda of al-Busairi, a panegyric of the Prophet, is recited at home and mosque gatherings."

Equally respected is the poetry of the Yemenite poet cAbdulrahim al-Burci (d. 1401 A.D/803 A.H.). According to Sudanese traditions, al-Burci spent his entire life traveling to the holy places in Hijaz; his death was due to his profound longing and love for Prophet Muhammad. Today, his poems is recited and disseminated by Sufi Brotherhoods in their celebrations and by individual performers in Sudan . The Sudanese famous reciter, Shaikh al-Sammani Ahmad cAlim, frequently recites it on radio Omdurman . cAbd Allah Al-Tayyib, a Sudanese scholar and Arabic literary critic, mentioned that he discovered al-Burci's complete poems in his village and was informed that a hand-written copy made by one of the early Majdhubiyyah saints, al-Faqih al-Maliki ibn Muhammad al-Majdhubi, is still available.

The Nature of Religious Oral Poetry

Religious oral poetry in the Sudanese Muslim community is inundated with eulogistic themes concerning Prophet Muhammad, his companions, and Sudanese saints. As mentioned earlier, through time, a distinction between the type of poetry in praise of Prophet Muhammad and poetry in praise of saints became apparent. The former poetry came to be called al-madih an-nabawi, (i.e., Prophet's praise; singular, madha); while the latter type of poetry has been labelled al-qasid (literally: poems; singular, qasidah). Although both types of poetry reflect upon different personalities, their themes and structure are, to some extent, extraordinarily similar.

It is the contention of some scholars, as mentioned previously, that the poetry of the al-madih an-nabawi preceded al-qasid. According to these scholars, qasid poetry came into being imitating al-madih an-nabawi poetry; colored with the same characteristics that appear in al-madih an-nabawi poetry. The qasid poetry main subject is the eulogy and veneration of religious saints; it also mentions the longing to visit the saint darih (grave-yard) or qubba (tomb), and enumerates his karamat (sing. karama: means thaumaturgy gift or miraculous manifestation) and good deeds. These are likewise the main themes of al-madih an-nabawi poetry. For example, the poet Wad Adam praises the famous Sudanese saint al-Shaikh Abu Qurun in his qasid poem:

Al-Shaikh with a continuous bright light,

always in love, his eyes tearing.

The pivot who is a good responder when you call on him in trouble,

His praise has been permitted in the Book (the Qur'an), the Sunnah (sayings of Prophet Muhammad) and the Ijmac (general consensus of Muslims).

While al-qasid poetry tends to refer to the praise of the Prophet within a poem, which is composed mainly to praise a saint, al-madih an-nabawi poetry is devoted entirely to the praise of Prophet Muhammad. In addition, a poet who is famous for praising a certain Muslim saint might sometimes compose a complete poem in praise of Prophet Muhammad; and a poet who composes al-madih an-nabawi poetry might occasionally compose poems in praise of a saint.

Like other religious facets of Islamic literature in the Sudan , religious oral poetry emerged and developed out of the Sufi ritual thought. The Sufi thought provided the foundations of Islamic knowledge all over the Muslim Sudanese territories. Al-Bashir states that al-madih an-nabawi flourishes in the sphere of the Shadhiliyyah Sufi Brotherhood which is labelled: "the tariqa of the culama" (the path of learned men), due to their tendency towards the apparent Sunnah (orthodox thought; the exact sayings and deeds of Prophet Muhammad), and their careful following of inner meaning of the teaching of Sufism. A direct relationship can be observed between the development of al-madih an-nabawi and its strong presence among the Shadhiliyyah Brotherhood. This Sufi religious organization shares numerous aspects with its Sufi counterparts, yet remains distinct in one aspect: like others it directs its followers to imitate the deeds and behavior of Prophet Muhammad. Unlike other Sufi Brotherhoods, the Shadhiliyyah tariqa encourages parity rather than stratification. It promotes the feeling of comradeship relations among its followers. The Shadhiliyyah ritual seeks to de-emphasize miracles and karamat phenomena, and pays a great deal of attention to pilgrimage and visitation of the Prophet's tomb. Consequently, the development of poetry revolving around the personality of the Prophet came as a logical outcome of the Shadhiliyyah's orientation. Al-Bashir has justly reported that al-madih an-nabawi poetry flourished in the northern parts of the Sudan , (among the Bidairiyyah, Shayqiyyah and the Ja'caliyyin communities where the Shadhiliyyah Brotherhood has its roots). By contrast, the poetry which centers around the praising of saints, namely al-qasid poetry, developed and flourished in the central parts of the Sudan where the Qadiriyyah, Sammaniyyah and Tijaniyyah Brotherhoods, which have saint-oriented teachings, first appeared and established its stronghold. To great extend, these two trends in Sudanese religious oral poetry help to shape the religious direction in these two geographical areas of Sudan .

The Themes and Composition of Religious Oral Poetry

Since many religious poets are illiterate, their poetry style is closer to colloquial than to literary style. It is characterized by the use of vernacular formulae and idioms. As described by Robert Kellog in his discussion of oral literature, these vernacular formulae and idioms "not only permit a speaker to form a sentence, they also make it possible for a listener to understand a sentence he had never heard before." The poet has to select his words according to the prosody of the poetic dictum of his audience. For this reason, religious oral poetry is characterized by formulaic language extracted from the Qur'an and from the everyday language of the community within which it mostly circulates. It is laden with recurrent themes and motifs derived directly from the basic concepts of Islamic oral literature in the Sudan .

The words of the poetry are largely drawn from the milieu of the poet; this feature becomes clear when one compares the poetry and way of speaking of a certain community in central Sudan with their counterparts in another community in northern Sudan . Although both communities speak Arabic, there are, nevertheless, two different variations. Each variation has its own distinct social function and context.

In his illustration of how folk poets use street words, Jan Mukaravosky cites Salda describing, "the frightful audacity" of the folk poet Jan Neruda who would "take words from the street, unwashed, uncombed, and [...] make of them messengers of eternity." If that is not the characteristic of all folk poetry, it is, without doubt, one of the main characteristics of Sudanese Islamic religious oral poetry. For the poet to be understood and his poetry to circulate freely, he has to express his community's feelings and attitudes in the language with which the people are familiar. The poet's words must be accessible to the audience and have to conform to the social and religious norms of the society. For example, no foul or obscene words are acceptable except when ridiculing or satirizing the enemies of the Prophet or a saint.

The ta'lif (composition) or nazm (versification) of a poem are the relevant Arabic terms for the act of composing of poetry. The pioneer maddihin (poets) used to subsidize part of their living expenses by composing poetry and performing it for audiences in villages and cities of the Sudan . Other maddihin (performers) or ruwah (sing. rawi or rawiyah; means reciter), made their living by performing what their predecessors had already composed.

According to the oral-formulaic theory by Milman Parry and his disciple Albert B. Lord, "the moment of composition is the performance" and that "composition and performance are two aspects of the same moment." To them, all oral poetry is composed during the performance and in the space of the moment of performance. In case of the Sudanese religious oral poetry, composition precedes performance. A specific occasion might spark or inspire a poem. This particular moment of inspiration is followed by a period in which the poet composes the poem in privacy. After composition is completed, performance takes place. The inspiration for a composition varies from poet to poet, and from one occasion to another.

Tradition reveals that some poets used to isolate themselves in their retreats until they have finished composing their poetry. Al-Bashir, when visiting the village of the Sufi poet Wad Nafisah, was directed to an old khalwah (retreat) where the poet used to isolate himself; and where he composed most of his poetry. Some poets go away into the desert where nobody can interrupt the stream of their poetic imagination. There, they collect their thoughts and begin composing their poetry.

In Sudanese tradition, it is very important for religious poems to be perceived as having been derived from divine inspiration. In other words, religious poems should be differentiated from ghuna (secular songs). In the first, it is believed that God must have dictated or helped in religious poem composition. In fact, even the decision to compose religious poems is also sometimes held to be divinely inspired. While in the latter its composition is a devil inspiration. Some religious poets were themselves once secular singers who used to compose secular songs for dances and celebrations until they got blessing and received the divine inspiration. Al-Tayyib M. al-Tayyib, who collected the tradition of the Manasir community in the northern part of the Sudan , was informed of the poet cAkasha Ali Khamis who was once a secular singer but deserted secular song composition and performance and turned to composing religious poetry. The informant acknowledged that the shift to religious poetry was a result of fath rabani (divine inspiration).

Besides faith in divine inspiration, the Sudanese have a profound belief in their Sheikhs (saints). As stated by Sharafeldin Abdelsalam, the saints are canonized and venerated in the heart of the people. Tradition stipulates: "al-ma'cindu shaikh al-shaytan shaikhu", which means: that he who has no shaikh (saint), has shaytan (satan) for a shaikh. This indicates the extent to which the Sudanese follow their saints and respect them. The karamat of their saints, which literally means thaumaturgy gifts or miraculous manifestation, have played a great role in inspiring many poets to compose poetry expressing their admiration and veneration of these saints.

Confirming the role of saints in converting a secular song composer and singer into a religious poetry composer and performer, tradition tells that a passerby saint inspired the pivotal poet of the Shayqiyyah community, Haj Al-Mahi, to change from singing secular songs to become a famous religious poetry composer.

Besides describing how poets are inspired to compose their poetry, these anecdotes demonstrate the karamat of the saints. They help make the poets and their poetry well known and prove that the saints have, in fact, blessed the poets. These blessings aid poets to gain respectability and endow their poetry with authenticity. Consequently, their poems acquire appeal among community members and establish attentive audience.

In addition to this saintly or divine inspiration, the poets are influenced by the prevailing rhythms of the secular songs of their times. In his study of the history of Arabic culture in the Sudan , Abdulmajid Abdin concludes that the Sufi poets were very much concerned with the meter of their poems. Poets were even obliged to add cryptic sounds or colloquial words or alter the sound of a word to fit the poem's meter and rhyme. He suggests that this type of alteration might have been common in the Sufi poems so as to subjugate the poem to the rhythm and recitation style of their time.

A madih (performer) and his audience both recognize a number of structural and thematic components in a madha (poem). Each poem begins with ash-shailah followed by at-tanzih theme. After that, a poet proceeds to make his tathniyah, which acts as an introduction to other coming themes. At-tathniyah is usually pursued by the theme of hagiography of the Prophet and his companions or a saint. This theme is called as-sirah. The theme of al-hajj or az-ziyarah (pilgrimage to Islamic holy places or saint's tomb) and that of at-tawqic come at the end of the poem.

Ash-Shailah Theme

Most of religious oral poetry poems have no specific titles. People usually designate the first hemistich of the first line of the poem as the title of the whole poem. Thus, when asking the madih (performer) to recite a specific poem, the audience has only to mention the first hemistich to the poet or the reciter and he, in turn, usually knows exactly which poem they are referring to. The complete first line is called ash-shailah which means: "to repeat after" and it serves as the refrain during the performance of a poem. It is also called al-casa (the stick) and as-salah (the prayer). The male audience's members constitute the chorus during the performance and they are supposed to repeat as-salah every time the performer completes a couplet of the poem. This chorus provides the reciter with a breathing space and a pause before he must proceed to the next couplet.

The Theme of at-tanzih

The thematic aspect, at-tanzih, means deanthropomorphism or the elimination of anthropomorphic elements from the concept of Allah (God). It often comes next to ash-shailah in the structure of the madha (poem). In this component, the poet might invoke the blessing of God, solicit his help, or ask him for forgiveness and guidance. At-tanzih might include only one of the aforementioned supplications or it might combine all of them. The famous poet Haj al-Mahi begins one of his poems by saying:

I started in my beginning by Allah, who knows the unseen,

who always exists with me and never disappears, who is spreading the blessings and gifts.

I beg Him to accept all my supplications,

and to make baraka, (benedictions) in my offspring.

To increase my wealth and livestock,

to make disappear my troubles and keep my enemy at bay.

 

The Theme of at-tathniyah

Next in the poem's thematic structure is at-tathniyah, which means literally what comes second or the second thing to mentioning of Allah (God). In at-tathniyah the poet often tends to cite the Prophet's name or one of his characteristics, such as the "Banner" or the "Intercessor" to set the stage for the eulogy of the Prophet or a saint. In case of al-qasid, the eulogized saint's name is mentioned. The audience understands the poet's technique; he begins with Allah and follows immediately with the Prophet. Most of the time at-tathniyah refers to the Prophet as "Intercessor" and for this reason it is sometimes called ash-shafaca (intercession). For example, al-Mahi's poem quoted above continues as follows:

I follow by mentioning you, oh Muhammad, our protector,

the moon of the prophets, our light and brightness.

Our sanctuary, our wealth, and the glory of our splendor,

the key to our secrecy and the cure to our blindness.

On the Day when the path is spread and the people are afflicted,

(the path) edge is thinner than the shaving blade.

On the Day of Judgement we stand, our Prophet, and we

and the talking is only for Ahmad, our protector.

Our wide ladder, our base and our construction,

quick on the Day of Judgement he came to us.

He bent and carried all our loads and our difficulties,

he spread His chaste sleeves for our cover.

Our strong center and the glory of our splendor.

our sanctuary that warned us away from all evils.

After these introductory themes, the poet proceeds to discuss the hagiography of Prophet Muhammad or his venerated saint.

The Theme of as-Sirah (the Prophet's and saint's Hagiography)

The part of the poem that follows at-tathniyah is called as-sirah, or simply the hagiography. The sirah includes the glorification of the Prophet's birthday, his miraculous deeds, and the biography of the Prophet; including his family. The sirah is the core of religious poetry themes. When the poet mentions the Prophet's companions and how they supported and fought for the cause of Islam, this is designated as-sahabah, which means: the Prophet's companions. In some poems the sahabah is mentioned whenever the poet is discussing an incident concerning the Prophet in which they were involved, however, few poems are devoted entirely to the Prophet's companions. In the same way al-qasid poets would numerate the good deeds of their saints and seek their help and support. As-sirah is a historical raptor of events and concomitant circumstances that mark the course of religious development of Islam in general and Islam in Sudan in particular.

Al-Hajj or az-Ziyarah Theme (Pilgrimage to Holy Places)

Another outstanding theme in the madha (poem) is the pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina in the Arabian Peninsula . Mecca is the holy place for all Muslims where al-Kacba is located. Al-Madina is where the Prophet Muhammad died and is buried. The site of his tomb is where, virtually, all al-madih an-nabawi poets long to visit. The Islamic verse of both the Sudan and West Africa are full of descriptions of these holy places and of the arduous journey to them. Traditionally, this part of the poem is called al-khatrah, which literally means: walking or traveling. In this section the poet expresses his longing for the Prophet and the holy places before he sets off on the journey to visit them. He describes the journey from home, including the places he passes on his way to pilgrimage. He also illustrates the hajj rites and his "visitation" to the Prophet. When a poem is directed towards a saint, his tomb and his village are the core of the poem.

The Theme of at-Tawqic

As an epilogue to his poem, the composer signs his name and includes some prayers to the Prophet or his saint and litanies for himself and his family and relatives. The mentioning of the poet's name is called at-tawqic, which means: the signature, while the prayers are called: as-salah. Al-Mahi closes his poem, saying:

Al-Mahi said: depending on you, make good our waiting,

You are the only one who knows our reward.

I swear by Almighty Allah and trustworthiness on me,

No one deserves our praise but you (Muhammad).

Prayers are on the one with lightened face,

And peace on the guider who guides us.

(Prayers and peace on the Prophet) as many as all the plants including the sesbania,

To please the dearest and his fine companions.

Alice Werner has documented this practice of closing with a signature in Swahili Islamic poetry in East Africa . She reports, "His name, (the poet) by not uncommon practice, is spelt out in the final stanza." In that stanza the Swahili poet says:

And he who made (this verse) is the son of Amin,

(His name is spelt with) Ain and Mim, and Re at the end.

And the stanzas are thirty.

His household name is Mwandhama.

However, the presence of a particular poet's signature at the end of a poem does not always prove that it is an authentic work by that particular poet. Many imitators have been able to imitate the signatures of different poets to successfully pass off their work as the composition of a great poet of old or even of the present times. The recurrence of such forgery has been reported by al-Bashir. When he collected the poems of the Sudanese Sufi poet Wad Nafisah, and examined the authenticity of his collection, al-Bashir found out that about twenty-five poems did not, in fact, belong to Wad Nafisah. Although they carried the same signature used by Wad Nafisah in his poems, they were either the compositions of another poet, or fraudulent poems. The same rule applies to the poetic production of almost any other religious oral poetry composers.

Performance and Transmission of Religious Oral Poems

Religious poetry, in its acceptance by community members, runs counter to ghuna, (singing). No one can ask a madih (performer) to sing for him. It is totally forbidden in religious ceremonies to call a performer a singer or his performance singing. People call on a performer to yanshid (recite or chant) for them and his recitation is called inshad. There are women who compose religious oral poetry but there is no woman who can perform religious oral poetry to mixed audience of men and women. Men performers are the only ones who are allowed to perform religious oral poetry. Nevertheless, women can perform to purly feminine audience.

After the composition of a religious poem, the composer would perform it for an audience, some of whom would learn it by heart and, in their turn, repeat it to the public. Thus, after the first performance of a poem, it subsequently becomes a common property. Currently, religious poems are the property of the community. The community decides who among its members should be labelled a madih (reciter). It is not just any one who can memorize and recite religious poetry will be listened to. To be considered a good performer, one needs to acquire additional facets of delivering a poem in public. He should be gifted with distinctive melodic, tonal, and rhythmic abilities to capture the attention of an audience.

The performance of religious poetry in the Sudan continuously attracts an audience from different segments of the Sudanese community. It could be encountered in the scattered Muslim villages in central, western, eastern and northern parts of the Sudan ; and at the Sudan 's cities and small towns market squares. Its transmission follows the cultural channels of communication and through the modern technological devices of the present times such as radio and television.

Conclusion

Based on the above discussion, it could be concluded that religious poetry in the Sudanese Muslim communities emerged as a result of the advent of Sufism in the Sudan . In the course of its development it follows the main stream of Arabic religious oral poetry. Beside that it has been influenced by many external and internal elements. In the ream of composition, it is not the performance occasion that inspires the poet to compose his poem in praise of Prophet Muhammad or his saint. In addition to skill at composing, a poet needs the blessing of one of the saints; then he seeks a secluded environment in which he can produce his poetry.

 

ab al-Tabaqat . p.3.

. Ibid. p.127-128.

. Al-Bashir, al-Tahir Muhammad c Ali . Al-adab as-sufi fi as-Sudan . Khartoum : dar al-fikr, 1970. p.42-57.

. Spaulding, Jay. The Heroic Age in Sinnar . East Lansing : The African Studies Center , Michigan State University , 1985. p. 158-159.

---------- and O'Fahey, R. S. Kingdoms of the Sudan . p.33.

. Trimingham, J. S. Islam in the Sudan . p.x.

. Al-Amin, c Izz al-Din. Turath ash-shi c r as-sudani . Cairo : ma c had al-buhuth wa-al-dirasat al- c arabiyah, 1969. p.24.

. Al-Bashir, c Abd Allah. Diwan ash-sha c ir as-sufi wad-Nafisah . Khartoum : Folklore Department, Institute of African and Asian Studies, 1976. p.24-25.

. c Abdin, c Abdul-Magid. Tarikh al-thaqafah al- c arabiyah fi as- Sudan . Beirut : dar al-thaqafah, 1967. p. 191. Osman, Ja far. " Shi c r al-madih an-nabawi ." Unpublished Master's Degree Thesis, Faculty of Arts, University of Khartoum , 1969.

. Wad Daif Allah, M. Kitab al-Tabaqat . p.92,293,341.

. Hasan, Qurashi M. Ma c a shu c ra' al-mada'ih . Vol. 3. Khartoum : Ministry of Culture and Communication, 1976. p.25. 4 vols.

. Hasan, Qurashi M. Diwan wad Sa c d fi madh ar-rasul . p.20-21.

. Wad Daif Allah, M. Kitab al-Tabaqat . p.188, 247, 289, 366.

. Al-Maghrabi, Muhammad al-Fatih. " Min at-turath ad-dini fi as- Sudan ." At-Tasawuf al-islami . 32 (Nov. 1981): 56-57.

. Ja c far Bin Hasan Bin Abdulkarim Bin Muhammad al-Hadim Bin Zain al-Abdin al-Barazanji al-Madani, (1101-1179/1690-1766), was born in Madina and was preacher at the Prophet's mosque. He was a Mufti in Muslim law according to Shafi c i madhhab.

. Harries, Lyndon. "Mawlid Barazanji, the Swahili Abridgment of Seyyid Masab." Afrika Und Ubersee . XLII (1958): 27-39.

. Trimingham, J. S. Islam in the Sudan . p.147.

. Al-Bashir, T. M. A. Al-adab as-sufi fi as-Sudan . p.36.

. Trimingham, J. P. Islam in the Sudan . p.147.

. Al-Tayyib, c Abdallah. "Shi c r al-madih an-nabawi." Adab . 3 (1970): 7-23.

. Al-Bashir, c Abdallah al-Shaikh M. Diwan wad Nafisah . Khartoum : Folklore Department, Institute of Afro-Asian Studies, University of Khartoum , 1976. p.27.

. Kellog, Robert. "Oral Literature." New Literary History . 5 (1973): 55-56.

. Mukaravosky, Jan. The Word and Verbal Art: Selected Essays . New Haven : Yale University Press, 1977. p.1-2.

. Lord, Albert B. The Singer of Tales . New York : Atheneum, 1978. p. 30.

. Ibid. p.13.

. Al-Bashir, A. Diwan Wad Nafisah . p.5.

. Al-Tayyib, al-Tayyib Muhammad. At-turath ash-sha c bi li-qabilat al-manasir . Khartoum : University of Khartoum , shu c bat abhath as-sudan, 1969. p.65.

. Abdelsalam, Sharafeldin E. "A Study of Contemporary Sudanese Muslim saints' Legends in Sociocultural Context." Diss. Indiana University , 1983.

. c Abdin, c Abdulmajid. Tarikh al-thaqafah al- c arabiyah fi as- sudan . Khartoum : Dar al-thaqafah, n.d. p. 205.

. Werner, Alice . "An Alphabetical Acrostic in a Northern Dialect of Swahili." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies . 5 (1928/30): 561-569.

. Al-Bashir, A. Diwan Wad Nafisah . p.6.

. For further detailed on this subjected, see: Osman, Ahmed I. "In Praise of the Prophet: the Performance and Thematic Composition of the Sudanese Religious Oral Poetry." Diss. Indiana University , 1990.